Circular economy and the use of waste as a resource

Circular economy is an economic system in which resources needed for creating products are used more than once. In contrast to the linear economy that implements the “take-make-dispose” business model, circular economy is based on recycling, reuse, and re-manufacture  of old products.

Pyramid for saving resources [1]

Why Is It Time To Start Thinking Circular?

Humans extract billions of tons of natural resources from Earth every year; the resources will become scarce if no progress is made.

It is time to rethink the way we use natural resources and work on their conservation. The world economy has been mostly linear. In order to preserve natural resources and reduce the amount of waste we generate, our economy must become circular. In the following chapter, we will take a look at how we can move from linear to circular economy and see a couple of examples of good practice and brands that have been embracing the concept of circular economy.

A lot of products we use on a daily basis, from plastic packaging, clothing, electronics, and furniture are disposable. There is a tendency to replace old disposable good for the new ones. The ‘take-make-dispose’ model, in which natural resources are extracted, turned into products, sold to consumers, and used until they are discarded as waste (see our diagram below) is no longer sustainable. Linear economy has enabled companies to produce and sell large amounts of inexpensive and unsustainable products.

It is therefore necessary to switch to circular economy, which is beneficial for the people and the environment in many ways. Most importantly, it protects the environment. Circular economy promotes sustainable growth by creating green industries, cleaner production technologies, and resource efficiency. Circular economy is financially beneficial as well. According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation, implementing this system can lead to $700 million cost savings in consumer goods industry and a €3000 increase in disposable income per annum for EU households [2]. Finally, circular economy opens new perspectives. It can create new jobs and eradicate poverty, increasing job opportunities for people across all social groups.

2.1 Waste by EU definition

There are many definitions of waste. Based on the EU terminology in the Waste Statistics Regulation substances and materials defined as waste are “‘any substance or object which the holder discards or intends to or is required to discard” [3]. It distinguishes waste from residue (i.e. “substances and materials, which are residues of production or consumption processes”) [4]. Waste can also be classified as “primary waste” (from consumption and production residues in private households and businesses) and “secondary waste” – waste from waste treatment residues (incl. waste for disposal and for recovery).

Source: https://www.pexels.com/de-de/foto/nahaufnahmefoto-der-plastikflasche-2409022/ Catherine Sheila

In this sense, waste stops being waste after it has undergone specific recycling or other processes. It can then “recover” and be “re-used” for general or specific purposes on the market, keeping in mind that it abides by the rules of existing legislation and standards and that its use does not have any negative environmental or human health impacts. Specific criteria that determines when the respective material ceases to be waste, and encourages recycling by creating legal framework for recyclable materials is given by Article 6(1) of the Waste Framework Directive.

Source: https://www.pexels.com/de-de/foto/mann-person-menschen-frau-7475167/
Mikhail Nilov

Even though EU regulation encourages reuse of waste, there are still difficulties in implementing such policy. For example, the EU food industry wastes about 88 million tons of food per year, with costs estimated at 143 billion euros [5]. In countries such as Austria or Germany, it is legally prohibited to take thrown away food. Such ‘wasted food’ that supermarkets, restaurants, or agricultural businesses discard cannot be taken by anyone else, as it is still considered as owners’ property.

Reusing plastic waste is difficult as well. Some plastics cannot be recycled at all, while some can be reused. To know the differences and ways to process different types of plastic, start-uppers would need to have a technical and legal know-how.

Outside of the EU, one of the dangers in developing Asian countries is the growing issue of shipbreaking. First World countries discard old vessels and send them to China and Bangladesh, two main shipbreaking hubs in Asia. One of the main issues here lies in the fact that these ships were constructed at a time with less environmental regulation. Researchers show that such action causes immensely negative impact on workers and the environment in this toxic trade sector. The older ships contain health hazardous substances such as asbestos, lead oxide, zinc chromates, mercury, arsenic, and tributyltin. In addition, shipbreaking workers in China and other developing countries often lack proper equipment or protective gear to handle such toxic substances.

2.2 Monitoring waste generation & treatment at the EU level

To monitor waste generation and treatment, the EU provides statistics and definitions with legal requirements on waste generation, treatment and management. The European Waste Classification for statistical purposes (EWC-Stat) is being performed regularly to inform of community waste generation. The “Guidance on classification of waste according to EWC-Stat categories” differentiates waste in regards to its chemical or physical characteristics or properties, the main sources (technical processes, industrial branches), and information about potentially hazardous components of the waste stream.

The EU classifies waste treatment based on the treatment type (recovery, incineration with energy recovery, other incineration, disposal on land and land treatment). The EU has defined 51 categories of waste and waste generation, and 18 industrial or household actors that perform such activities. The EU implements these definitions and Eurostat maintains a set of EU Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [6] – set of 100 indicators structured along the 17 SDGs [7].

The Eurostat Waste Data [8] and “Guidance on classification of waste according to EWC-Stat categories” [9] may be of interest for start-uppers looking for a job in the waste management industry. The Eurostat Waste Data is an extensive database that provides more information about the regulations and legal requirements of waste treatment and management, including a number of EU Directives, which introduced producer responsibility measures for waste streams, related to Batteries (BATT), end of life vehicles (ELVs), packaging waste (PACK), and waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE). “Guidance on classification of waste according to EWC-Stat categories” on the other hand provides a good overview of the waste categorisation.

Source: https://www.pexels.com/photo/landfill-near-trees-2768961/

Leonid Danilov

2.3 Reuse of waste

Based on the EU legislation concerning waste management, there are five waste treatment categories: Recovery (including recycling, composting and anaerobic digestion, industrial processes to recover solvents, acids or bases, catalysts and oils),  disposal on land – other operations than recovery with even a secondary consequence of substances or energy reclamation and land treatment (e.g. at agricultural or ecological benefit), incineration with energy recovery – for the reclamation of substances or energy by e.g. landfilling, and other incineration [10]. Reporting would have to be made referring to:

• waste use to generate energy
• solvent reclamation/regeneration
• recycling/reclamation of organic substances
• recycling/reclamation of metals and metal compounds
• recycling/reclamation of other inorganic materials
• regeneration of acids or bases
• waste components used for pollution abatement
• recovery of components from catalysts
• oil re-refining or other reuses of oil
• land treatment resulting in benefit to agriculture or ecological improvement
• use of waste obtained from any of these listed operations

Some activities to use waste might not be found in the aforementioned directives for reporting but could still be considered as “use of waste” following this project’s idea; it might be e.g. the incineration of waste as fuel [11]. Other uses of waste such as internal waste processing, which is organised at the site where it was generated  and can be seen for example in reprocessing or regeneration of production waste in the same or similar process it was generated through (re-use of gravel or disposal of by-catches for example).

Apart from waste categories and treatment or management operations, start-uppers will also have to be aware of the most recent EU legislatives and national, regional, and local regulations (including legislation other than waste legislation) which we will not be able to cover in detail in this module.

However, in this module we will further discuss materials and treatment categories that might be of interest to start-uppers opening micro or small businesses without large investment needs.

One of the materials that are the most commonly used on a global scale is plastic. Its consumption, as well as its disposal is rapidly increasing.

Source: https://korotkinassociates.com/great-pacific-garbage-patch/

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch – plastic debris more than twice the size of Texas floating around the Pacific Ocean– is made out of plastic waste. In 1997, racing boat captain Charles Moore discovered this pile of trash – he called the Great Pacific Garbage Patch – in one of the most remote parts of the world. Returning from a trans-pacific race, he and his crew encountered a large body of plastic debris in the ocean.

Source: https://eu.usatoday.com/story/tech/science/2018/03/22/great-pacific-garbage-patch-grows/446405002/

Charles Moore wrote:

 “As I gazed from the deck at the surface of what ought to have been a pristine ocean, I was confronted, as far as the eye could see, with the sight of plastic. It seemed unbelievable, but I never found a clear spot. In the week it took to cross the subtropical high, no matter what time of day I looked, plastic debris was floating everywhere: bottles, bottle caps, wrappers, fragments.” [12]

If nothing is done, research suggests [13] that the levels of plastic flowing into the ocean will triple by 2040; the Ellen MacArthur Foundation [14] report suggested that there could be more plastic by weight swimming around than fish by 2050.

PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is the most common plastic used for food and drink packaging purposes. It is inexpensive, lightweight, and most importantly easy to recycle. PET bottles are the most widely recycled plastic in the world.

Found in: soft drinks, water, ketchup, and beer bottles; mouthwash bottles;     peanut butter containers; salad dressing and vegetable oil containers.

 

HDPE (high density polyethylene) plastic used in many ways, especially in packaging. It is accepted in most recycling centres, and has one of the easiest plastic polymers to recycle.

Found in: milk jugs; juice bottles; bleach, detergent, and other household cleaner bottles; shampoo bottles;  certain trash and shopping bags; motor oil bottles; butter and yogurt tubs; cereal box liners.

 

PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and V (vinyl) is resistant plastic and it is commonly used for things such as piping and siding. Because chlorine is part of PVC, it can release highly dangerous dioxins during manufacturing and it is therefore very difficult to recycle.

Found in: shampoo and cooking oil bottles, blister packaging, cable insulation, siding, windows, or piping.

 

LDPE (low density polyethylene) is a flexible plastic with many applications. It is most famously found in plastic bags and is difficult to recycle.

Found in: squeezable bottles; bread, frozen food, dry cleaning, and shopping bags, or furniture.

 

PP (polypropylene) has a high melting point, so it is often used for containers with hot liquid. It’s gradually becoming more accepted by the recyclers.

Found in: certain yogurt containers, syrup and medicine bottles, caps, or straws.

 

PS (polystyrene) can be made into rigid or foam products — in the latter case it is popularly known as Styrofoam™. Styrene monomer (a type of molecule) is possibly carcinogenic and can contaminate food.  It is not biodegradable and almost impossible to recycle.

Found in: disposable plates and cups, meat trays, egg cartons, carry-out containers, aspirin bottles, compact disc cases.

 

PET No. 6 is commonly used in food packaging

Source: https://pixabay.com/de/photos/h%c3%bchnchensalat-lebensmittel-kasten-6016585/

Miscellaneous – a wide variety of plastic resins that do not fit into previous categories are lumped into this one. Polycarbonate (hard plastic) and PLA (polylactic acid) are number seven plastic, which are hardly ever recycled.

Found in: three- and five-gallon water bottles, bullet-proof materials, sunglasses, DVDs, iPod and computer cases, signs and displays, certain food containers, nylon.